Introduction to Screen-Printed Electrodes and Their Working Principle

Screen-Printed Electrodes (SPEs) are miniaturized electrochemical devices fabricated by printing conductive inks (carbon, gold, silver/silver chloride) onto inert substrates such as ceramic, plastic, or paper using a screen-printing process.
They typically integrate a three-electrode system: working, reference, and counter electrode on a single platform.

When a potential is applied between the working and reference electrodes, electrochemical reactions (oxidation/reduction) occur at the working electrode surface. The resulting current, measured between the working and counter electrodes, is proportional to the concentration of the target analyte.